6 level of body organization
1 - chemical
2 - cellular
3 - tissue
4 - organ
5 - organ system
6 - organism
11 organ systems
01 - integumentary system (hair, skin, nails)
02 - skeletal system
03 - muscular system
04 - cardiovascular system
05 - nervous system
06 - digestive system
07 - reproductive system
08 - endocrine system
09 - respiratory system
10 - urinary system
11 - lymphatic and immune system
integument - a natural covering, such as skin, hair, rind, or shell
Structural: integumentary, skeletal, muscular
Distributive: cardiovascular, lymphatic
Metabolic: digestive, urinary, respiratory
Control: nervous, endocrine
Procreative: reproductive
Methods of examination
palpation - examination by feeling body surfaces by hand (of the examiner)
auscultation - listening to body sounds (with a stethoscope)
percussion - tapping on a body surface to listen to specific echoes
The six most important life processes of the human body
1. metabolism
2. responsiveness (to internal, external environment)
3. movement (of the body, organs, cells, or organelles)
4. growth
5. differentiation (cells develop from unspecialized to specialized)
6. reproduction (either of new tissue to replace old one, or the production of new individuals)
homeostasis - relative balance of the internal environment of the body (a dynamic physiological constancy)
Body fluids
ICF = intracellular fluid
ECF = extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
ECF in blood = blood plasma
ECF in lymphatic vessels = lymph
ECF around brain and spinal cord = cerebrospinal fluid
ECF in joints = synovial fluid
ECF in the eyes = aqueous humor and vitreous body
Interstitial fluid surrounds all body cells and therefore is referred to as “internal environment” of the body.
The nervous system and the endocrine system control homeostasis, either in concert or independently.
Glands release hormones into the blood.
Three basic components of a feedback system: receptor (receives nerve impulse or chemical signal), control center (output as nerve impulse, hormone, or other chemical signal), effector (produces a response; nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as effector)
Negative feedback cycle reverses original stimulus - returns the body to a previous homeostatic condition, interrupts the effect of a stimulus; moves a bodily function in the opposite direction as a change that has been detected by a receptor
Positive feedback cycle enhances original stimulus - moves a bodily function into the same direction as a change that has been reported by a receptor; for example, at the first signs of labor, more labor symptoms are effected
A positive feedback loop has to be stopped by an outside event (e.g. baby born); while negative feedback systems are constantly at work, positive feedback systems play a role in extraordinary events.
Imbalances
A disorder is a general lack of optimal function.
A disease is a rather specific disorder.
A sign is an indicator of a disorder or disease that can be observed by another person. E.G., vital signs: blood pressure, body temperature
A symptom is an indicator that is felt by the individual who is sick, such as nausea, feeling weak, etc.
Anatomical position - standing and facing the observer, palms of the hands facing observer
Prone position - lying face down
Supine position - lying face up
Regional names: head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, lower limbs
Anatomical descriptive adjectives for body parts:
Cephalic (area, features, disorders) - related to the head
Cranial - related to the scull
Facial - related to the face
Frontal - related to the forehead
Orbital - related to the eye
Otic - related to the ear
Nasal - related to the nose
Buccal - related to the cheeks
Oral - related to the mouth
Mental - related to the chin
Occipital - related to the base of the skull (viewed from behind)
Thoracic - related to the chest
Sternal - related to the breastbone
Mammary - related to the breasts
Acromial - related to the shoulders
Scapular - related to the shoulder blades
Vertebral - related to the spinal column
Dorsal - related to the back
Abdominal - related to the abdomen
Umbilical - related to the navel
Coxal - related to the hips
Lumbar - related to the lower back
Pelvic - related to the pelvis
Inguinal - related to the groins
Pubic - related to the genital region
Sacral - related to the area between the hips
Gluteal - related to the buttocks
Axillary - related to the armpits
Brachial - related to the arms
Antecubital - related to the front of the elbow (anterior part if viewed in the anatomical position)
Olecranal - related to the back of the elbow
Antebrachial - related to the forearm
Carpal - related to the wrists
Manual - related to the hands
Digital (or phalangeal) - related to the fingers
Palmar - related to the palms of the hqands
Dorsum - related to the back of the hands
Femoral - related to the thighs (vorderer Oberschenkel)
Patellar - related to the anterior knee
Popliteal - related to the area behind the knee
Crural - related to the lower leg
Sural - related to the back of the lower leg (calves, Waden)
Pedal - related to the feet
Tarsal - related to the ankles of the feet
Digital (or phalangeal) - related to the toes
Plantar - related to the sole
Calcaneal - related to the heels
Dorsum - related to the top of the feet
superior (cephalic, cranial) - towards the upper part
inferior (caudal) - towards the lower part
anterior (ventral) - towards the front
posterior (dorsal) - towards the back
medial - nearer to the midline
lateral - further from the midline
intermediate - between two structures
ipsilateral - on the same side of the body
contralateral - on the opposite side of the body
proximal - nearer to the origin of a structure, especially a limb
distal - further from the origin of a structure, especially a limb
superficial - towards the surface of the body
deep - further from the surface of the body
Planes through the human body:
midsagittal - dividing into left and right along the midline of the body
parasagittal - dividing into left and right, but not along the midline of the body (rather left or right of the midline)
transverse - dividing into upper and lower
frontal - dividing into front and back
oblique - dividing by a slanting plane
Two body cavities:
Dorsal body cavity - the cranial cavity and the vertebral (spinal) canal together form the dorsal cavity; the meninges (three layers of protective tissue) line the dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity - the superior, thoracic and the inferior, abdominopelvic cavity together form the ventral body cavity; the diaphragm (a dome-shaped MUSCLE) separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities; all the organs of the ventral cavity together are named “viscera”
Thoracic body cavity (the upper part of the ventral body cavity) - the space of the thoracic cavity that is not occupied by the lungs is named the mediastinum; the mediastinum contains the following organs: the heart (in the pericardial cavity), esophagus, trachea, thymus, blood vessels, etc
Abdominopelvic body cavity (the lower part of the ventral body cavity) - divided into two parts (though no real barrier separates the two portions), the abdominal cavity (with the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine) and the pelvic cavity (with then urinary bladder, parts of the large intestine, and the internal organs of the reproductive system)
Thin, double-layer, fluid-filled serous membranes compartmentalizes the thoracic and abdominopelvic body cavities. Attention: the spaces between the layers are also called cavities. For example, the pericardial cavity is the cavity BETWEEN the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium; it is not the space where the heart as a whole is located.
The serous membrane of the pleural cavities is the pleura; the parietal layer of the pleura attaches to the wall of the thoracic body cavity, and the visceral layer lines the lungs.
The serous membrane of the heart is the pericardium; the parietal layer of the pericardium attaches to the wall of the thoracic body cavity, and the visceral layer lines the heart.
perineum - region below the pelvic diaphragm
peritoneum - a serous membrane
The serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity is the peritoneum. With its parietal layer, it covers the anterior and lateral abdominopelvic cavity, but in the posterior abdominopelvic cavity, some organs lie between the parietal layer of the peritoneum and the posterior wall of the abdominopelvic cavities. This is the case for the kidneys, adrenal glands, duodenum of the small intestine, ascending and descending colons of the large intestine, parts of the aorta and ven